According to Dal Yong Jin, cultural imperialism still exists in our world, both in the more traditional form of the spreading of Western cultural products and in the relatively new form of Western capital investments in local cultural industries (Jin 2013, 11). He defines this concept as follows:
Imperialism involves as an extension of power or authority over others, with a view to domination, and it results in the political, military, or economic dominance of one country over another. Cultural imperialism extends this definition to incorporate the cultural imbalances and inequalities between rich and poor nations that result from economic and technological gaps between them (Jin 2013, 2).
Jin cites Herbert Schiller, who argues that cultural imperialism is a cultural process through which Western lifestyle, norms and values are spread and institutionalised throughout the world (Jin 2013, 10). An interesting example in relation to this argument is that of the introduction of television in the nineties on the island nation of Fiji, which resulted in an increase of eating disorders among adolescent girls. Until 1995 Fiji did not know a proper distribution system of electricity, which meant that Western cultural influence, and therewith the influence of Western beauty standards, through the media had been marginal up to that point (BBC 1999; Ireland 2009).
In Fiji’s culture, food was associated with prosperity and celebrated as a central aspect of daily life. In contrast to Western beauty ideals that are focused on thin bodies, Fiji women (and men) with curves and rather large, robust bodies were considered desirable. Prior to the widespread introduction of television on the island, eating disorders among the inhabitants were practically non-existent (Ireland 2009). With the influx of television on Fiji in 1995, the traditional ideal of beauty collided with the representation of thin bodies on the only television station that was broadcast, which mainly showed programmes from the US, the UK and New Zealand (BBC 1999; Ireland 2009). According to Harvard researchers, only three years after the introduction of television, 11.3 percent of the interrogated girls admitted to have vomited at least once to lose weight, and 74 percent of them perceived themselves as “too big or fat” (BBC 1999; Ireland 2009). Western beauty ideals seemed to have become the norm to these girls, and they themselves felt they had to conform to this norm. Seeing the images of thin bodies interspersed with images of wealth and a good life, made these girls associate the former with the latter, which made them perceive themselves as “poor and fat” (Ireland 2009). To become happy, they assumed, they had to aspire a rich and cosmopolitan lifestyle and have a size zero.
On the contrary, in 1998 psychiatrist Hans Wijbrand Hoek conducted a research on anorexia among women in Curacao and concluded that even though overweight was socially acceptable, the number of cases of eating disorders corresponded with numbers in Western countries. The authors stated that “(…) our finding challenges the ideas that sociocultural pressure to diet is a crucial factor in the causation of anorexia nervosa and that it occurs only in Western societies” (Hoek et al. 1998, 1232). These results do not match the conclusions of the study on Fiji, for cases of anorexia still occurred in a society where the ideal of thin bodies was not dominant.
However, psychologist Melanie Katzman questioned the profundity of the research and joined the team to repeat the investigation. In the end, the researchers traced the majority of anorexia cases to women of mixed-race subgroups that appeared to be vulnerable to etiological risk factors that were specific to their social context (Hoek et al. 2005, 486). No cases were identified within the majority black population. Many of the diagnosed women yearned for a sense of belonging; they did not feel included in the island’s culture and associated thinness with acceptance within the white and wealthier subgroups (Hoek et al. 2005, 473). Other than that, five of the six diagnosed girls had left the island at 18 to study abroad and started a career on Curacao afterwards. They reported that they experienced stress caused by high expectations from themselves and their families, because their parents were at the same time protective and urged them to be independent. The women struggled with their “identity in terms of race, family role, and ultimately the female role in society” in relation to their place in the culture on the island (Hoek et al. 2005, 476). Although the women associate thinness with wealth and success, it was not the only factor in the development of anorexia nervosa. Hoek and his team considered the concept of cultural imperialism as described by Jin a reductionist view that does not capture the “complex interplay of social and biological risk” (Hoek et al. 2005, 464).
As a consequence, the correlation between the impact of cultural imperialism and the increase of eating disorders has to be seen in a critical light. From a medical point of view there are various specific meanings attached to an eating disorder, as we also discovered in the example of Curacao (Shipton, 2004: 125). As a matter of fact, Shipton underlines the significance to pay attention to the complexity of approaches, pointing to one research about how media messages are read. She refers to Varan, who suggests “that the common belief that media systems act as vehicles for cultural imperialism needs to be balanced with research on how communities ‘read’ and use what is broadcast on television” (Shipton, 2014: 125). He indicates that the community could also use television actively to strengthen their local values instead of being turned into victims.
On the other hand, Mitchell et al. show in their more recent study that cultural imperialism has effects on body dissatisfaction (Mitchell et al., 2014). In their research they compared the impact of Arab and Western television (in Kuwait) by analysing the effects of shows with prominent thin television characters in contrast to shows that had prominent average body types. The results revealed that the body images portrayed in television shows positively correlated with how the respondents reflected on their body image. As Arab shows often present characters according to their cultural attire, hiding various parts of the body, television shows do not have such a strong effect on the perception of the body image. In comparison, Western media images are found to be oppressing traditional cultural norms by redefining what is considered as overweight and hence increasing the pressure to achieve a certain ideal body type (Mitchell et al., 2014: 85).
In conclusion, cultural imperialism or Westernization could provoke eating disorders as it influences how people perceive their bodies. Especially collectivist societies with limited individualism are affected by Western media, as the latter portray the values of rich, successful and beautiful people, which the former are aspiring to become (ibid). Nonetheless, the cause of eating disorders must not be solely linked to cultural imperialism, because beneath the surface complex mental processes are affected. However, their appearance could be considered as evidence of social change or as a sign of adaptation to Western values imposed by the media in a given society (Lester, 2004: 607).
Literature
Hoek, H.W., P. N. van Harten, D. van Hoeken and E. Susser. “Lack of Relation between Culture and Anorexia Nervosa — Results of an Incidence Study on Curaçao.”The New England Journal of Medicine 338.17 (April 23 1998), pp. 1231-1232.
Ireland, Corydon. “Fijian girls succumb to Western dysmorphia.” Harvard Gazette. Harvard University, March 19, 2009. Web. November 18, 2016.
Katzman, Melanie, K.M Hermans, D. van Hoeken en H.W. Hoek. “Not Your “Typical Island Woman?: Anorexia Nervosa is Reported Only in Subcultures in Curaçao.” Culture Medicin and Psychiatry 28.4 (December 2004), pp. 463-492.
Lester, Rebecca. “Commentary: eating disorders and the problem of “culture” in acculturation.” Culture, medicine and psychiatry 28.4 (2004): 607-615.
Mitchell, C., Dinkha, J., Kononova, A., Rashwan,T., Matta, M. (2014). A Body of Dissatisfaction: A Study of the Effects of Media Imperialism in Kuwait, American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 76-87.
“TV brings eating disorders to Fiji.” BBC News. BBC, May 20, 1999. Web. November 18, 2016.
Image: Alejandra Carlos, http://www.alejandracarlos.com/
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